Everything below concerns neurotrophic factor. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-07-26. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Reported pharmacological work centers on neurotrophic signaling, including changes in BDNF and NGF expression in hippocampal tissue in animal models. Human data come largely from studies conducted in Russia, and how well those results generalize to other populations remains an open question. Regulatory status differs sharply by jurisdiction: Semax is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while it holds no approved marketing status in the United States or the European Union. Outside such jurisdictions it is generally handled as a research chemical, which affects both documentation and quality expectations.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
Semax 是人工设计的七肽，序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，骨架取自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)。它于二十世纪八十年代在苏联的分子遗传学研究机构内合成。设计目标是保留该片段与注意力和记忆相关的活性，同时剔除促皮质激素释放等内分泌作用。此后俄罗斯将其登记为药品并进入临床使用。
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular weight | ~813.9 Da (free heptapeptide) | N-acetylated form is about 42 Da heavier |
| Residue count | 7 (heptapeptide) | Four residues from ACTH(4-10), three added |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Usually supplied lyophilized |
| Solubility class | Freely soluble in water | Also dissolves in DMSO and polar organic solvents |
| Related parent fragment | ACTH(4-10) | Parent motif is Met-Glu-His-Phe |
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
=== Biosphere === Methanogenesis is a form of anaerobic respiration used by microbes, and microbial methanogenesis can occur in deep subsurface, marine sediments, freshwater bodies, etc. It appears that methane from deep subsurface and marine sediment is generally in internal isotopic equilibrium., while freshwater microbial methanogenesis expresses large kinetic isotope effect on methane clumped isotope composition. There are two possible explanations for this variance: firstly, substrate limitation may enhance the reversibility of methanogenesis, thus allowing methane to achieve internal isotopic equilibrium via rapid hydrogen exchange with water; secondly, activation of C-H bonds during anaerobic oxidation precedes reversibly such that C-H bonds are broken and reformed faster than the net rate of methane consumption and methane can be reequilibrated.
Grameen Danone Foods, popularly known as Grameen Danone, is a social business enterprise, launched in 2006, which has been designed to provide children with many of the key nutrients that are typically missing from their diet in rural Bangladesh. It is run on 'No loss, No dividend' basis. Initially, Grameen Danone agreed to pay an annual dividend of one percent to shareholders, however, in December 2009, the board of Grameen Danone agreed to waive any monetary return.
=== The role of oxygen === Yeasts are facultative anaerobes meaning that they can exist in both the presence and absence of oxygen. While fermentation is traditionally thought of as an anaerobic process done in the absence of oxygen, early exposure of the yeast to oxygen can be a vital component in the successful completion of that fermentation. This is because oxygen is important in the synthesis of cell "survival factors" such as ergosterol and lanosterol. These sterols are important in maintaining the selective permeability of the yeast cell membrane which becomes critical as the yeast becomes exposed to increasing osmotic pressure and levels of alcohol in the wine. As a waste product of its own metabolism, alcohol is actually very toxic to yeast cells. Yeast with weak survival factors and lacking sterols may succumb to these conditions before fermenting a wine to complete dryness, leaving a stuck fermentation. Cultured yeasts that are freeze-dried and available for inoculation of wine must are deliberately grown in commercial labs in high oxygen/low sugar conditions that favor the development of these survival factors. One of the reasons that some winemakers prefer using inoculated yeast is the predictability of fermentation due to the high level of survival factors that cultured yeast are assured of having without necessarily needing to expose the wine to additional levels of oxygen. Winemakers using "ambient" yeasts that are resident in their winery may not have this same assurance of survival factors and may need to compensate with other winemaking techniques.
== Further reading == Robert Kempa, Plebiscyt 1920 r. w północno-wschodniej części Mazur (na przykładzie powiatu giżyckiego). In Masovia. Pismo poświęcone dziejom Mazur, 4/2001, Giżycko 2001, pp. 149–157 (in Polish) Andreas Kossert, Ostpreussen: Geschichte und Mythos, ISBN 3-88680-808-4 (in German) Andreas Kossert, Religion versus Ethnicity: A Case Study of Nationalism or How Masuria Became a "Borderland", in: Madeleine Hurd (ed.): Borderland Identities: Territory and Belonging in Central, North and East Europe. Eslöv 2006, S. 313–330 Adam Szymanowicz, Udział Oddziału II Sztabu Generalnego Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych w pracach plebiscytowych na Warmii, Mazurach i Powiślu w 1920 roku. In Komunikaty Mazursko – Warmińskie, 4/2004, pp. 515–530.(in Polish) Wojciech Wrzesiñsk, Das Recht zur Selbstbestimmung oder der Kampf um staatliche Souveränität – Plebiszit in Ostpreußen 1920 in AHF Informationen Nr. 54 vom 20.09.2000 [2] (in German)
restriction site Also restriction recognition site. A short, specific sequence of nucleotides (typically 4 to 8 bases in length) that is reliably recognized by a particular restriction enzyme. Because restriction enzymes usually bind as homodimers, restriction sites are generally palindromic sequences spanning both strands of a double-stranded DNA molecule. Restriction endonucleases cleave the phosphate backbone between two nucleotides within the recognized sequence itself, while other types of restriction enzymes make their cuts at one end of the sequence or at a nearby sequence.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Geophysics === Beneath the Earth's mantle lies the core, which is made up of two parts: the solid inner core and the liquid outer core. Both contain significant quantities of iron. The liquid outer core moves in the presence of the magnetic field, and eddies are generated within it due to the Coriolis effect. These eddies develop a magnetic field that boosts Earth's original magnetic field, a self-sustaining process known as the geomagnetic dynamo.
Russia launched 16 missiles and 13 drones at energy infrastructure across Ukraine. Two energy workers in Zaporizhzhia Oblast were wounded. In Lviv Oblast a missile hit an energy facility, starting a fire. In Ivano-Frankivsk one of the buildings of Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas was semi-destroyed and a kindergarten was damaged. Explosions were reported in Volyn and Vinnytsia Oblasts. Twelve missiles and all drones were shot down, according to the Ukrainian Air Force. Russian media reported that a Pantsir S-1 anti-aircraft missile system was struck in a Ukrainian air attack in Belgorod Oblast. Three people were killed in Russian airstrikes in Kharkiv.
=== Properties === Detrital zircons usually retain similar properties as their parent igneous rocks, such as age, rough size and mineral chemistry. However, the composition of detrital zircons is not entirely controlled by the crystallization of the zircon mineral. In fact, many of them are modified by later processes in the sedimentary cycle. Depending on the degree of physical sorting, mechanical abrasion and dissolution, a detrital zircon grain may lose some of its inherent features and gain some over-printed properties like rounded shape and smaller size. On a larger scale, two or more tribes of detrital zircons from different origins may deposit within the same sedimentary basin. This gives rise to a natural complexity of associating detrital zircon populations and their sources. Zircon is a strong tool for uranium-lead age determination because of its inherent properties:
On 1 May 1989, the American Physical Society held a session on cold fusion in Baltimore, including many reports of experiments that failed to produce evidence of cold fusion. At the end of the session, eight of the nine leading speakers stated that they considered the initial Fleischmann and Pons claim dead, with the ninth, Johann Rafelski, abstaining. Steven E. Koonin of Caltech called the Utah report a result of "the incompetence and delusion of Pons and Fleischmann," which was met with a standing ovation. Douglas R. O. Morrison, a physicist representing CERN, was the first to call the episode an example of pathological science. On 4 May, due to all this new criticism, the meetings with various representatives from Washington were cancelled. From 8 May, only the A&M tritium results kept cold fusion afloat. In July and November 1989, Nature published papers critical of cold fusion claims. Negative results were also published in several other scientific journals including Science, Physical Review Letters, and Physical Review C (nuclear physics). In August 1989, in spite of this trend, the state of Utah invested $4.5 million to create the National Cold Fusion Institute. The United States Department of Energy organized a special panel to review cold fusion theory and research. The panel issued its report in November 1989, concluding that results as of that date did not present convincing evidence that useful sources of energy would result from the phenomena attributed to cold fusion.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Clifford insisted that no British troops should be committed for the suppression of the rebellion. In October, Clarke arrived at Wepener at the head of a force of 1,000 cavalry, 600 infantry, five artillery pieces, and 40 wagons. Clarke was aiming to relieve Mafeteng, whose garrison was forced to exchange messages written in Greek, since some Basuto chiefs spoke both English and French. Clarke's advance was slowed by deep mud, and the Basuto cavalry regularly harried the column with rifle fire before withdrawing. On 19 October, the Cape army reached Qalabane, an isolated kop halfway between Wepener and Mafeteng. Lerotholi had positioned 3,000 of his warriors behind a ridge that overlooked a nearby road. The advanced guard of the Cape Mounted Yeomanry came under rifle fire from the kop. Clarke ordered the artillery to fire upon the kop and dispatched 200 men from the 1st Cape Mounted Yeomanry to flank the kop from the left. CMY commander Captain Dalgety ordered his soldiers to dismount and assume an open order formation. Chief Seiso's led a charge of 300 axe-wielding Basuto cavalrymen on Dalgety's unit before the latter was able to reach the crest. The 2nd CMY reinforced Dalgety soon afterwards and captured a nearby village. The Cape army lost 32 killed and seven injured, while the Basuto lost 40 killed. The yeomanry was almost defenseless in hand-to-hand combat, as it was not yet issued bayonets or swords.
In her 2008 book The How of Happiness, Sonja Lyubomirsky similarly argued people's happiness varies around a genetic set point. Diener warns, however, that it is nonsensical to claim that "happiness is influenced 30–50% by genetics". Diener explains that the recipe for happiness for an individual always requires genetics, environment, and behaviour too, so it is nonsensical to claim that an individual's happiness is due to only one ingredient. Only differences in happiness can be attributed to differences in factors. In other words, Lyubomirsky's research does not discuss happiness in one individual; it discusses differences in happiness between two or more people. Specifically, Lyubomirsky suggests that 30–40% of the difference in happiness levels is due to genetics (i.e. heritable). In other words, still, Diener says it makes no sense to say one person's happiness is "due 50% to genetics", but it does make sense to say one person's difference in happiness is 50% due to differences in their genetics (and the rest is due to behaviour and environment). Findings from twin studies support the findings just mentioned. Twins reared apart had nearly the same levels of happiness thereby suggesting the environment is not entirely responsible for differences in people's happiness. Importantly, an individual's baseline happiness is not entirely determined by genetics, and not even by early life influences on one's genetics.
=== From specimen collection === Most causes of in vitro hemolysis are related to specimen collection. Difficult collections, unsecure line connections, contamination, and incorrect needle size, as well as improper tube mixing and incorrectly filled tubes are all frequent causes of hemolysis. In vitro hemolysis during specimen collection can cause inaccurate laboratory test results by contaminating the surrounding plasma with the contents of hemolyzed red blood cells. For example, the concentration of potassium inside red blood cells is much higher than in the plasma and so an elevated potassium level is usually found in biochemistry tests of hemolyzed blood. After the blood collection process, in vitro hemolysis can still occur in a sample due to external factors, such as prolonged storage, incorrect storage conditions and excessive physical forces by dropping or vigorously mixing the tube.
=== G-Man === The G-Man (voiced by Michael Shapiro) is a mysterious recurring character. He is known to display peculiar behavior, and capabilities beyond that of an ordinary human. His identity and motives remain almost entirely unexplained. He plays the role of an overseer and employer, both observing the player as the games progress and pulling strings to control the outcome of specific events throughout the Half-Life saga. The G-Man's constant appearances in the Half-Life games, as well as his revealing monologues with series protagonist Gordon Freeman, imply that he is of great importance and somewhat anchors the efforts of the player. His mysterious nature has made him an icon of the Half-Life series. During the development of Half-Life, after the designers discovered the usefulness of allied NPCs, the development team began to cast for characters who were "neither allies nor outright enemies, but existed mainly to create a sense of intrigue", which eventually led to the creation of the G-Man. According to Half-Life writer Marc Laidlaw, G-Man was inspired by the character Slowslop in Synergy's computer game Gadget: Invention, Travel, & Adventure (1993), which Laidlaw had adapted into a novel in 1996.
It was limited to solid samples; however, liquid sample recently can also be measured in TC/EA-IRMS system by adapting an autosampler for liquids. The drawback of TC/EA is the relatively big sample size (~ mg), which is smaller than offline combustion/reduction but larger than GC/pyrolysis. It cannot separate different compounds as GC/pyrolysis does and thus only the average for the whole sample can be provided, which is also a drawback for some research.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, a seven-residue peptide. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, and Pro-Gly-Pro is added at the C-terminus. N-acetylated versions also appear in the literature and differ in mass.
Semax is a synthetic analog of the ACTH(4-10) fragment rather than a copy of the full hormone. Truncation plus the added tail removes the steroidogenic portion of ACTH. That distinction explains why it is studied for nervous-system effects instead of adrenal stimulation.
It is registered as a prescription product in Russia and has been used there clinically, chiefly by the intranasal route. No approval exists in the United States or the European Union. Availability elsewhere typically falls under research-chemical distribution, with varying purity documentation.
不存在。它是依据 ACTH 的一段序列人工设计的分子，天然蛋白质中找不到与之完全相同的七肽。名称属于研究代号，而非天然物质名。