nasal drops raises a handful of sensible questions. This page answers them in order, starting with the fundamentals and moving to applications.
This page was last updated on 2026-05-27 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Identity and purity are confirmed with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, typically monitored at 214 nanometres where the peptide bond absorbs. Mass spectrometry, either electrospray or MALDI-TOF, verifies molecular mass against the theoretical value and detects truncation or adduct formation. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide additional confirmation when required. The most frequently reported impurities are deletion sequences from incomplete coupling, methionine sulfoxide from oxidation, and dimeric species formed through non-covalent aggregation. Impurity profiles depend strongly on the synthesis and purification route chosen by the producer.
Published research has focused mainly on neurological and cognitive endpoints in animal models, with proposed mechanisms involving brain-derived neurotrophic factor and related signalling pathways. A substantial share of the human data originates from a limited number of research groups, and independent replication in other countries remains sparse. Regulatory status reflects that distribution: the peptide is registered as a medicine in Russia and appears in some neighbouring markets, while elsewhere it is handled as a research chemical without approved therapeutic labelling. Questions about dose-response relationships, long-term effects, and comparability across studies are still open.
Lyophilised powder is normally kept at -20 °C in a desiccated container, with some suppliers recommending -80 °C for long-term archival storage. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are the most common cause of avoidable loss, so aliquoting before freezing reduces variability between working sessions. Dissolved peptide is far less stable than the dry solid and is usually prepared fresh or held briefly at 4 °C. Aqueous solutions support both hydrolysis of the backbone and oxidation of the N-terminal methionine, and these two routes dominate degradation under ordinary laboratory conditions.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
The compound was developed in the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, where it emerged from research on short ACTH fragments and their effects on the central nervous system. Russian pharmaceutical listings describe it as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent, most often formulated as nasal drops. It is not a marketed medicine in the United States or the European Union, and no pharmacopoeial monograph covers it. Consequently, most published clinical experience with the substance originates from a small number of research centres, mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Purity assay | RP-HPLC, UV 214 nm | Typical research grade 95 percent or higher |
| Mass confirmation | ESI-MS or MALDI-TOF | Compared with theoretical value |
| Main degradation route | Methionine oxidation | Sulfoxide formation in solution |
| Powder storage | -20 °C, desiccated | Amber vial, minimal headspace |
| Working solution | Sterile water or saline | Prepare fresh; avoid repeated thawing |
Dissolution is normally performed in water, phosphate-buffered saline, or normal saline, since the peptide is freely soluble in aqueous media and is rarely handled with strong organic solvents. Solution pH should be kept near neutral, because extreme acidity or alkalinity accelerates backbone hydrolysis and encourages oxidation of the methionine side chain. Once dissolved, the material is less stable than the dry powder and is commonly divided into single-use portions and frozen. Buffers containing primary amines, such as Tris, are often avoided because of possible side reactions.
Purity assessment relies mainly on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, which separates the target heptapeptide from truncated sequences, deletion analogues, and oxidised forms. Mass spectrometry, usually coupled to liquid chromatography, confirms identity through the expected molecular ion and reveals modifications such as methionine sulfoxide formation. Amino acid analysis can verify composition, and tandem mass spectrometry supports sequence confirmation. Ultraviolet detection near 254 to 280 nanometres is convenient because the phenylalanine and histidine residues absorb in that region. Nuclear magnetic resonance is rarely used for routine release testing.
Regulatory status varies sharply by country. Semax is registered for medical use in Russia, where it appears in formularies as a nasal solution, and it also holds registration in a small number of neighbouring states. It has no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, and it is not a scheduled controlled substance in most jurisdictions. Elsewhere it circulates mainly as laboratory material, so purity documentation comes from suppliers rather than from a national pharmacopoeia.
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
The parent fragment ACTH(4-10) carries the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly. Semax replaces the arginine and tryptophan positions with a proline-glycine-proline tail, giving Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. That change removes residues associated with adrenal stimulation, so the peptide does not drive cortisol release the way full ACTH does. This distinction shapes how the compound is grouped in the literature, where it sits with neuropeptides and peptide neuromodulators rather than with corticosteroids.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
Circulation time for the peptide is short because peptidases cleave it readily. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail is thought to slow breakdown compared with the bare ACTH fragment, but the gain appears modest. Absorption after intranasal dosing is limited, and only a fraction of a dose is expected to reach the central nervous system. Laboratory concentrations therefore sit well above levels achieved systemically, a gap that complicates translation from bench findings to clinical claims.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
=== Prosecution in the United States === Following his capture Noriega was transferred to a cell in the Miami federal courthouse, where he was arraigned on the ten charges which the Miami grand jury had returned two years earlier. The trial was delayed until September 1991 over whether Noriega could be tried after his detention as a prisoner of war, the admissibility of evidence and witnesses, and how to pay for Noriega's legal defense. The trial ended in April 1992, when Noriega was convicted on eight of the ten charges of drug trafficking, racketeering, and money laundering. On July 10, 1992, Noriega was sentenced to 40 years in prison. In pre-trial proceedings, the government stated that Noriega had received $322,000 from the U.S. Army and the CIA. Noriega insisted that he had in fact been paid close to $10,000,000, and that he should be allowed to testify about the work he had done for the U.S. government. The district court held that information about the operations in which Noriega had played a part supposedly in return for payment from the U.S. was not relevant to his defense. It ruled that "the tendency of such evidence to confuse the issues before the jury substantially outweighed any probative value it might have had." One of the witnesses in the trial was Carlton, who had previously flown shipments of drugs for Noriega. Information about Noriega's connections to the CIA, including his alleged contact with Bush, were kept out of the trial. After the trial, Noriega appealed this exclusionary ruling by the judge to the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals.
== Biochemistry and effects == A wide variety of alkaloid and non-alkaloid compounds have been identified in various species of Ephedra. Of the six ephedrine-type ingredients found in ephedra (at concentrations of 0.02-3.4%), the most common are ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which are the sources of its stimulant and thermogenic effects. These compounds stimulate the brain, increase heart rate, constrict blood vessels (increasing blood pressure), and expand bronchial tubes (making breathing easier). Their thermogenic properties cause an increase in metabolism, as evidenced by an increase in body heat. Ephedra is widely used by athletes as a performance-enhancing drug, despite a lack of evidence that it improves athletic performance. Ephedra may also be used as a precursor in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. Ephedra has been used as a weight-loss aid, sometimes in combination with aspirin and caffeine. Some studies in regulated and supervised environments have shown that ephedra is effective for marginal short-term weight loss (0.9 kg/month more than the placebo), although it was untested whether such weight loss is maintained. However, several reports have documented a number of adverse events attributable to unregulated ephedra supplements. Adverse effects of ephedra consumption may include severe skin reactions, irritability, nervousness, dizziness, trembling, headache, insomnia, profuse perspiration, dehydration, itchy scalp and skin, vomiting, and hyperthermia.
consensus sequence Also canonical sequence. A calculated order of the most frequent residues (of either nucleotides or amino acids) found at each position in a common sequence alignment and obtained by comparing multiple closely related sequence alignments.
It launched in 1990 by the Brazilian Workers' Party in São Paulo, after the Workers' Party approached other parties and social movements of Latin America and the Caribbean with the objective of debating the new international scenario after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the consequences of the implementation of what were taken as neoliberal policies adopted at the time by contemporary right-leaning governments in the region, with the stated main objective of the conference being to argue for genuine alternatives to neoliberalism. Among its members, it includes democratic socialist and social democratic parties in the region such as Bolivia's Movement for Socialism, Brazil's Workers' Party, the Ecuadorian PAIS Alliance, the Venezuelan United Socialist Party of Venezuela, the Socialist Party of Chile, the Uruguayan Broad Front, the Nicaraguan Sandinista National Liberation Front and the Salvadoran Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front. Former members included the Brazilian Socialist Party and the Popular Socialist Party. In Venezuela, Hugo Chávez was re-elected in October 2012 for his third six-year term as president, but he suddenly died in March 2013 from advanced cancer. After Chávez's death, Nicolás Maduro, the Vice President of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), assumed the powers and responsibilities of the president on 5 March 2013. A special presidential election was held the following which Maduro won by a tight margin as the PSUV's candidate. He was formally inaugurated on 19 April 2013.
=== Human === In humans (and perhaps in all placental mammals), the most common form is fetomaternal microchimerism (also known as fetal cell microchimerism or fetal chimerism) whereby cells from a fetus pass through the placenta and establish cell lineages within the mother. Fetal cells have been documented to persist and multiply in the mother for several decades. The exact phenotype of these cells is unknown, although several different cell types have been identified, such as various immune lineages, mesenchymal stem cells, and placental-derived cells. A 2012 study at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, has detected cells with the Y chromosome in multiple areas of the brains of deceased women. Fetomaternal microchimerism occurs during pregnancy and shortly after giving birth for most women. However, not all women who have had children contain fetal cells. Studies suggest that fetomaternal microchimerism could be influenced by killer-cell immunoglobulin-like (KIR) ligands. Lymphocytes also influence the development of persisting fetomaternal microchimerism since natural killer cells compose about 70% of lymphocytes in the first trimester of pregnancy. KIR patterns on maternal natural killer cells of the mother and KIR ligands on the fetal cells could have an effect on fetomaternal microchimerism. In one study, mothers with KIR2DS1 exhibited higher levels of fetomaternal microchimerism compared to mothers who were negative for this activating KIR. The potential health consequences of these cells are unknown.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cost-conscious organised retail companies will avoid waste and loss, making food available to the weakest and poorest segment of Indian society, while increasing the income of small farmers. Walmart, for example, since its arrival in Indian wholesale retail market, has successfully introduced the "Direct Farm Project" at Haider Nagar near Malerkotla in Punjab, where 110 farmers have been connected with Bharti Walmart for sourcing fresh vegetables directly, thereby reducing waste and bringing fresher produce to Indian consumers. Indian small shops employ workers without proper contracts, making them work long hours. Many unorganised small shops depend on child labour. A well-regulated retail sector will help curtail some of these abuses. Organised retail has enabled a wide range of companies to start and flourish in other countries. For example, in the United States, retailer Whole Foods has rapidly grown to annual revenues of $9 billion by working closely with farmers, delighting customers and caring about the communities it has stores in. The claims that there is no consensus is without merit. About 10 years ago, when opposition formed the central government, they had proposed retail reforms and suggested India consider FDI in retail. Retail reforms discussions are not new. More recently, retail reforms announced evolved after a process of intense consultations and consensus building initiative. In 2010, the Indian government circulated a discussion paper on FDI retail reforms.
== Bioencapsulations == Alginate is one of the most widely used polymers in bioencapsulation, particularly for the immobilisation or protection of living cells, enzymes, proteins and other bioactive materials. Its use is largely based on the ability of soluble alginate to form calcium alginate hydrogels under mild aqueous conditions, allowing biological material to be entrapped without exposure to harsh solvents, high temperature or aggressive chemical reactions. In cell encapsulation, alginate beads or microcapsules can provide a semipermeable hydrogel matrix that permits diffusion of nutrients, oxygen and secreted products while physically separating the encapsulated cells from the surrounding environment. This approach has been investigated for immunoisolation, islet transplantation, cell therapy, tissue engineering and controlled delivery of biological products. Alginate bioencapsulation systems can be produced by dripping, extrusion, air-jet cutting, electrostatic droplet generation, emulsification and microfluidic methods. These techniques differ in throughput, bead-size control, size distribution and suitability for encapsulating cells or labile biomolecules.
By 1984, all public water was to be tested by using a GC/MS apparatus. In the 1980s, an estimated 60-70% of Finnigan's GC/MS sales went to the environmental market. GC/MS technology, of which Finnigan Instrument Corporation's instrument was the first, was the technical underpinning that made it possible for the EPA to carry out its regulatory efforts in the 1970s. About 100 organic compounds could be identified in water prior to 1970. By 1975, nearly 1500 organic pollutants had been identified. Without the ability to detect such compounds, their monitoring and regulation would not have been possible. In 1981, Finnigan purchased the MAT division from Varian Associates which produced mass spectrometers in Bremen, Germany forming the Finnigan MAT brand of MS instruments. When Finnigan Instrument Corporation was acquired by Thermo Instrument Systems (since 2006 Thermo Fisher Scientific) in 1990, the firm was considered "the world's leading manufacturer of mass spectrometers". Robert Finnigan continued to consult for the company for several years after the acquisition. He has also consulted with other entrepreneurial companies.
Qullqas were built at every "tambo", which were inns located a day's march, about 22 kilometres (14 mi), from each other along many of the 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi) of royal highways. The qullqas were primarily used to supply Inca officials and armies on the move as they relied on the qullqas for food rather than foraging—to the deprivation of the agricultural population—which was the common means by which armies around the world supplied their needs until the modern era. Another use for the stored items, especially food, was for the ceremonial feasts that were an important part of the relationship between the rulers and their subjects. Food was also distributed to the general populace in cases of crop failures or shortages of food.
They developed technologies for boat building, allowing for extensive travel and trade, as well as, elaborate tools utilizing lithics, drift wood, and animal resources for fishing and the hunting of sea mammals. Aleutian craftsmanship in basketry and weaving using rye beach grass is also particularly noted.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Of additional structural interest is the discovery of a so-called “hotspot” present on the surface of the Gβγ dimer; a specific site of the protein that binds to diverse range of peptides and is thought to be a contributing factor in the ability of Gβγ to interact with a wide variety of effectors.
ester A class of organic and inorganic compounds derived from the reaction of an acid with an alcohol, in which at least one hydroxyl group (–OH) is replaced by an alkoxy group (–O–). Esters have the general formula RCO2R′, where R and R' represent any alkyl or aryl group.
During the Great Migration, millions of African Americans left the rural South for urban areas in the North. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. The Compromise of 1877 is generally considered the end of the Reconstruction era, as it resolved the electoral crisis following the 1876 presidential election and led President Rutherford B. Hayes to reduce the role of federal troops in the South. Immediately, the Redeemers began evicting the Carpetbaggers and quickly regained local control of Southern politics in the name of white supremacy. African Americans endured a period of heightened, overt racism following Reconstruction, a time often considered the nadir of American race relations. A series of Supreme Court decisions, including Plessy v. Ferguson, emptied the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments of their force, allowing Jim Crow laws in the South to remain unchecked, sundown towns in the Midwest, and segregation in communities across the country, which would be reinforced in part by the policy of redlining later adopted by the federal Home Owners' Loan Corporation. An explosion of technological advancement, accompanied by the exploitation of cheap immigrant labor, led to rapid economic expansion during the Gilded Age of the late 19th century. It continued into the early 20th, when the United States already outpaced the economies of Britain, France, and Germany combined. Tycoons led the nation's expansion in the railroad, petroleum, and steel industries, as the United States emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry.
== External links == WHO Good Clinical Laboratory Practice (GCLP) (11 Oct 2010) MHRA guidance on the maintenance of regulatory compliance in laboratories that perform the analysis or evaluation of clinical trial samples (11 Oct 2010)
== Secretion == GLP-1 is packaged in secretory granules and secreted into the hepatic portal system by the intestinal L-cells located primarily in the distal ileum and colon, but also found in the jejunum and duodenum. The L-cells are open-type triangular epithelial cells directly in contact with the lumen and neuro-vascular tissue and are accordingly stimulated by various nutrient, neural and endocrine factors. GLP-1 is released in a biphasic pattern with an early phase after 10–15 minutes followed by a longer second phase after 30–60 minutes upon meal ingestion. As the majority of L-cells are located in the distal ileum and colon, the early phase is likely explained by neural signalling, gut peptides or neurotransmitters. Other evidence suggests the L-cells located in the proximal jejunum are sufficient to account for the early-phase secretion through direct contact with luminal nutrients. Less controversially, the second phase is likely caused by direct stimulation of L-cells by digested nutrients. The rate of gastric emptying is therefore an important aspect to consider, as it regulates the entry of nutrients into the small intestine where the direct stimulation occurs. One of the actions of GLP-1 is to inhibit gastric emptying, thus slowing down its own secretion (negative feedback) upon postprandial activation. Fasting plasma concentrations of biologically active GLP-1 range between 0 and 15 pmol/L in humans and are increased 2- to 3-fold upon food consumption depending on meal size and nutrient composition.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Reversed-phase HPLC gives the main purity figure, most often with UV detection near 214 nanometres. Mass spectrometry then confirms the molecular mass. Together the two methods distinguish a correct sequence from a closely related impurity.
The main chemical risks are methionine oxidation and backbone hydrolysis in solution. Moisture and repeated temperature cycling accelerate both processes. Dry powder held cold and desiccated is considerably more stable than any reconstituted preparation.
It holds a medicine registration in Russia, where it has been used clinically for decades. In most other countries it is treated as a research chemical. That split explains the uneven distribution of clinical literature.
It is described as a synthetic analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Its sequence differs from that fragment and includes two proline residues, which influence stability and behaviour in solution.