lyophilised powder raises a handful of sensible questions. This page answers them in order, starting with the fundamentals and moving to applications.
This page was last updated on 2026-03-16 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Published research covers ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, cognitive impairment, optic nerve conditions and attention-related measures. Much of the human evidence comes from small trials conducted in one country, which limits how far the results generalize. Animal models supply the larger share of the data, and effects seen in rodents do not transfer automatically to people. Reviews have noted that methodological reporting is often incomplete, making it difficult to pool results or compare treatment schedules across studies.
Pharmacokinetic accounts emphasize rapid breakdown. After intravenous dosing the intact peptide disappears from blood within minutes, and nasal delivery produces low but measurable concentrations. Metabolites rather than the parent molecule may account for part of the observed activity, although the relative contribution is unresolved. Dosing in the literature varies widely and no optimal schedule has been agreed. These gaps are regularly cited as a reason the findings have not produced broad clinical adoption beyond the original research setting.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary research models | Rodent studies | Largest share of published data |
| Reported markers | BDNF and NGF expression | Measured mainly in animal tissue |
| Common administration | Intranasal | Matches the registered formulation |
| Blood residence time | Minutes | Rapid enzymatic degradation |
| Evidence quality | Small trials, limited replication | Noted repeatedly in reviews |
Common degradation pathways include oxidation of the methionine side chain, hydrolysis of the peptide backbone, and aggregation under unfavourable pH or concentration. Stability studies typically monitor the main peak by chromatography and report total related substances as a percentage. Because no official monograph exists, acceptance criteria vary between laboratories, and reported purity values are not directly comparable across suppliers. Analysts therefore document the method, column, and detection wavelength alongside each result, and open questions remain about how much biological activity the oxidised forms retain.
Solid semax is typically supplied as a lyophilised powder that is hygroscopic and sensitive to moisture, light, and repeated temperature cycling. Long-term storage of the dry peptide is generally recommended at approximately -20 degrees Celsius, while shorter working periods may use refrigeration at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius. Vials should remain tightly closed and desiccated when brought to room temperature, because condensation can damage the material before it is weighed. Dividing a batch into aliquots is preferable to thawing one container repeatedly.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
== Catalyzed reaction == Tyrosinase carries out the oxidation of phenols such as tyrosine and dopamine using molecular oxygen (O2). In the presence of catechol, benzoquinone is formed (see reaction below). Hydrogens removed from catechol combine with oxygen to form water. The substrate specificity becomes dramatically restricted in mammalian tyrosinase which uses only L-form of tyrosine or DOPA as substrates, and has restricted requirement for L-DOPA as cofactor.
Concerning Questions of Leninism (1926) represented Marxism–Leninism as a separate communist ideology and featured a global hierarchy of communist parties and revolutionary vanguard parties in each country of the world. With that, Stalin's application of Marxism–Leninism to the situation of the Soviet Union became Stalinism, the official state ideology until his death in 1953. In Marxist political discourse, Stalinism, denoting and connoting the theory and praxis of Stalin, has two usages, namely praise of Stalin by Marxist–Leninists who believe Stalin successfully developed Lenin's legacy, and criticism of Stalin by Marxist–Leninists and other Marxists who repudiate Stalin's political purges, social-class repressions and bureaucratic terrorism.
== Sources == Bamforth, Charles; Food, Fermentation and Micro-organisms, Wiley-Blackwell, 2005, ISBN 0-632-05987-7 Bamforth, Charles; Beer: Tap into the Art and Science of Brewing, Oxford University Press, 2009 Boulton, Christopher; Encyclopaedia of Brewing, Wiley-Blackwell, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4051-6744-4 Briggs, Dennis E., et al.; Malting and Brewing Science, Aspen Publishers, 1982, ISBN 0-8342-1684-1 Ensminger, Audrey; Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia, CRC Press, 1994, ISBN 0-8493-8980-1 Esslinger, Hans Michael; Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets, Wiley-VCH, 2009, ISBN 3-527-31674-4 Hornsey, Ian Spencer; Brewing, Royal Society of Chemistry, 1999, ISBN 0-85404-568-6 Hui, Yiu H.; Food Biotechnology, Wiley-IEEE, 1994, ISBN 0-471-18570-1 Hui, Yiu H., and Smith, J. Scott; Food Processing: Principles and Applications, Wiley-Blackwell, 2004, ISBN 978-0-8138-1942-6 Andrew G.H. Lea, John Raymond Piggott, John R.
However, Oscar Tiegs' involvement in imparting knowledge started much earlier than his time at the University of Melbourne, he being a student demonstrator in biology at the University of Queensland in 1918.
Solute carrier family 25 member 39 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A39 gene. The protein has been shown to be necessary for the import of the major antioxidant glutathione into the mitochondria.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Environment == Endolithic microorganisms have been reported in many areas around the globe. There are reports in warm hyper-arid and arid deserts such as Mojave and Sonora (USA), Atacama (Chile), Gobi (China, Mongolia), Negev (Israel), Namib (Namibia Angola), Al-Jafr basin (Jordan) and the Depression of Turpan (China), also in cold deserts as Arctic and Antarctic, and deep subsoil and ocean trenches rocks. However, there are reports of endolithic microorganisms in inter-tropical zones, where humidity and solar radiation are significantly different from the above-mentioned biomes. Endoliths have been found in the rock down to a depth of 3 km (1.9 mi), though it is unknown if that is their limit (due to the cost involved in drilling to such depths). The main threat to their survival seems not to result from the pressure at such depth, but from the increased temperature. Judging from hyperthermophile organisms, the temperature limit is at about 120 °C (Strain 121 can reproduce at 121 °C), which limits the possible depth to 4-4.5 km below the continental crust, and 7 or 7.5 km below the ocean floor. Endolithic organisms have also been found in surface rocks in regions of low humidity (hypolith) and low temperature (psychrophile), including the Dry Valleys and permafrost of Antarctica, the Alps, and the Rocky Mountains.
DNA-binding protein (DBP) Any polypeptide or protein containing one or more domains capable of interacting chemically with one or more parts of a DNA molecule, and consequently having a specific or general affinity for single- and/or double-stranded DNA. DNA-binding activity often depends on the presence and physical accessibility of a specific nucleobase sequence, and mostly occurs at the major groove, since it exposes more of the functional groups which uniquely identify the bases. Binding is also influenced by the spatial conformation of the DNA chain and the occupancy of other proteins near the binding site; many proteins cannot bind to DNA without first undergoing conformational changes induced by interactions with other molecules.
==== Effects on the immune system ==== Morphine has long been known to act on receptors expressed in cells of the central nervous system resulting in pain relief and analgesia. In the 1970s and '80s, evidence suggesting that people addicted to opioids show an increased risk of infection (such as increased pneumonia, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS) led scientists to believe that morphine may also affect the immune system. This possibility increased interest in the effect of chronic morphine use on the immune system. The first step in determining that morphine may affect the immune system was to establish that the opioid receptors known to be expressed on cells of the central nervous system are also expressed on cells of the immune system. One study successfully showed that dendritic cells, part of the innate immune system, display opioid receptors. Dendritic cells are responsible for producing cytokines, which are the tools for communication in the immune system. This same study showed that dendritic cells chronically treated with morphine during their differentiation produce more interleukin-12 (IL-12), a cytokine responsible for promoting the proliferation, growth, and differentiation of T-cells (another cell of the adaptive immune system) and less interleukin-10 (IL-10), a cytokine responsible for promoting a B-cell immune response (B cells produce antibodies to fight off infection). This regulation of cytokines appears to occur via the p38 MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein kinase)-dependent pathway.
In the 1700s, ivory dentures were developed from walrus, elephant or hippopotamus tusks. Alexis Duchateu crafted the first porcelain dentures in 1770. These were prone to cracking and appeared too white to be natural teeth. Duchateus was a pharmacist, since Denturist, as an occupation was yet to be established. In the 1800s, the incidence of dental decay and tooth loss began to increase rapidly. The industrialisation period meant the consumption of sugar among British citizens increased by 500 percent. A need for an alternative form of dentures was needed. In 1815, the Battle of Waterloo gave rise to the highly demanded "Waterloo teeth". These were dentures crafted primarily from the teeth of dead soldiers seated in a base of animal ivory. Waterloo dentures gave the appearance of natural teeth and were not as prone to breakage as porcelain dentures. In 1820, Claudius Ash was given the task of crafting a new and improved form of dentures. Ash was a silversmith and goldsmith. He constructed porcelain on 18-karat gold plates. The springs that held the dentures together were also made of gold. Dentures that were previously made from natural teeth or porcelain were both aesthetically and functionally inferior in comparison to Ash's design. In the 1850s, Ash and his company developed Vulcanite (hardened rubber that seated porcelain teeth). His company was the leading supplier of this form of dentures in Europe. Charles Goodyear was awarded the patent for Vulcanite-based dentures in 1851. Dentures, at the time, were primarily focused on aesthetics.
So dextromoramide, with a pyrrolidine ring on the 1-amide position, a dextro methyl group on the 3-position of the alkyl chain, a morpholine ring around the 4-amine group, and both phenyl rings unsubstituted, was by far the most potent out of all the compounds in this series and was the only one that became widely used in medicine (although the racemic mix racemoramide saw some limited use).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
On April 25, 2023, Carrier Global announced that it intended to acquire the HVAC division Viessmann Climate Solutions from the Viessmann Group and divest its Commercial Refrigeration business and most of its Fire & Security businesses. In December 2023, Carrier Global sold its security businesses LenelS2, Supra and Onity to Honeywell for approximately $5 billion. In March 2025, Carrier Global declared to sell its Industrial Fire division to Sentinel Capital Partners in a $1.43 billion deal.
=== Correcting for GPS signal errors === In the 1990s, NASA scientists at JPL developed software capable of correcting for GPS signal errors, enabling accuracy within inches; it is called Real-Time GIPSY (RTG). John Deere licensed the software and used it to develop self-driving farm equipment. As of 2016, as nearly 70% of North American farmland is cultivated by self-driving tractors, which rely on RTG that was developed at NASA. Another user of RTG is Comtech Telecommunications, which is a major provider of location-based services. This technology is used in cell phones so that 9-1-1 emergency callers can be located.
==== 1952–53 ==== When he joined the Cardinals, broadcaster Harry Caray started calling him "Vinegar Bend," and the nickname stuck. He was hailed as "the left-handed Dizzy Dean" by sportswriter Red Smith, which Mizell called "a perty heavy load for a boy to tote." Added to St. Louis's starting rotation for the 1952 campaign, Mizell made his major league debut on April 22 against the Cincinnati Reds. He gave up two runs in the first inning, then held the Reds scoreless for the rest of the game, though he took the loss in a 2–1 defeat. Two starts later, on May 2, he limited the Philadelphia Phillies to four hits and two runs in a complete game, winning in the ninth when Peanuts Lowrey broke a 2–2 tie with an RBI-single. After that win, he lost three games in a row, then received four consecutive no decisions. He ended the winless streak on June 21, when he struck out 11 in his first major league shutout against the Boston Braves. That started a streak of six decisions won in a row, during which time Mizell posted a 3.05 ERA. He would not lose again until August 27. On September 5, he threw his second shutout of the year, tying his season high with 11 strikeouts in a 4–0 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates. Mizell finished his rookie season with a 10–8 record and a 3.65 ERA in 30 starts. He led the National League (NL) in strikeouts per 9 innings pitched with a 6.9 mark, and his 146 strikeouts ranked fourth in the league (behind Warren Spahn's 183, Bob Rush's 157, and Robin Roberts's 148). However, he also led the league in walks (103, tied with Herm Wehmeier).
taxis A directional response by a cell or a population of cells to a specific stimulus; a movement or other activity occurring in a non-random direction and dependent on the direction from which the stimulus originated. This contrasts with kinesis, a response without directional bias.
Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light sources is the development of more efficient phosphors. As of 2010, the most efficient yellow phosphor is still the YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stokes shift loss. Losses attributable to internal optical losses due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself typically account for another 10% to 30% loss. Currently, in the area of phosphor LED development, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Conformal coating process is frequently used to address the issue of varying phosphor thickness. Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated epoxy. Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed polycarbonate piece coated with the phosphor material. Remote phosphors provide more diffuse light, which is desirable for many applications. Remote phosphor designs are also more tolerant of variations in the LED emissions spectrum. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce3+:YAG). White LEDs can also be made by coating near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of high-efficiency europium-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and aluminium-doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The main proposal is modulation of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, supported largely by animal experiments. Receptor-level targets have not been firmly established. Most reviews describe the mechanism as only partially characterized.
The compound is registered as a medicine in Russia, so clinical work has concentrated there. Trials elsewhere are few and generally small. This geographic concentration is a recognized limitation in evidence reviews.
Some fraction may reach the central nervous system through olfactory pathways, and this is often cited as the rationale for the nasal route. The size of that fraction in humans is not well quantified. Blood concentrations after nasal dosing are low, which complicates measurement.
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.